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发表于 2009-2-7 19:10 | 显示全部楼层
Ionosphere » Mechanisms of ionization » Photoionization
Most of the electrical activity in the ionosphere is produced by photoionization (ionization caused by light energy). Photons of short wavelength (that is, of high frequency) are absorbed by atmospheric gases. A portion of the energy is used to eject an electron, converting a neutral atom or molecule to a pair of charged species—an electron, which is negatively charged, and a companion positive ion. Ionization in the F1 region is produced mainly by ejection of electrons from molecular oxygen (O2), atomic oxygen (O), and molecular nitrogen (N2). The threshold for ionization of O2 corresponds to a wavelength of 102.7 nm (nanometres, or billionths of a metre). Thresholds for O and N2 are at 91.1 nm and 79.6 nm, respectively.

Positive ions in turn can react with neutral gases. There is a tendency for these reactions to favour production of more-stable ions. Thus, ionized atomic oxygen, O+, can react with O2 and N2, resulting in ionized molecular oxygen (O2+) and ionized nitric oxide (NO+), as shown by:O+ + O2 ⟶ O + O2+ (1) and O+ + N2 ⟶ NO+ + N. (2)

Similarly, ionized molecular nitrogen (N2+) can react with O and O2 to form NO+ and O2+ as follows: N2+ + O ⟶ NO+ + N (3) andN2+ + O2 ⟶ N2 + O2+. (4) The most stable, and consequently most abundant, ions in the E and F1 regions are O2+ and NO+, the latter more so than the former. At lower altitudes, O2+ can react with the minor species of atomic nitrogen (N) and nitric oxide (NO) to form NO+, as indicated by: O2+ + N ⟶ O + NO+ (5) andO2+ + NO ⟶ O2 + NO+. (6) In the D region, NO+ and water vapour (H2O) can interact to form the hydronium ion, H3O+, and companion species such as H5O2+ and H7O4+. Production of hydrated ions is limited by the availability of H2O. As a consequence, they are confined to altitudes below about 85 km (53 miles).

       
Ionosphere » Mechanisms of ionization » Recombination
The electron density in the D, E, and F1 regions reflects for the most part a local balance between production and loss. Electrons are removed mainly by dissociative recombination, a process in which electrons attach to positively charged molecular ions and form highly energetic, unstable neutral molecules. These molecules decompose spontaneously, converting internal energy to kinetic energy possessed by the fragments. The most important processes in the ionosphere involve recombination of O2+ and NO+. These reactions may be summarized by: O2+ + e ⟶ O + O (7) andNO+ + e ⟶ N + O. (8)

A portion of the energy released in reactions (7) and (8) may appear as internal excitation of either nitrogen, oxygen, or both. The excited atoms can radiate, emitting faint visible light in the green and red regions of the spectrum, contributing to the phenomenon of airglow. Airglow originates mainly from altitudes above 80 km (50 miles) and is responsible for the diffuse background light that makes it possible to distinguish objects at Earth’s surface on dark, moonless nights. Airglow is produced for the most part by reactions involved in the recombination of molecular oxygen. The contribution from reactions (7) and (8) is readily detectable, however, and provides a useful technique with which to observe changes in the ionosphere from the ground. Over the years, studies of airglow have contributed significantly to scientific understanding of processes in the upper atmosphere.

As indicated above, dissociative recombination provides an effective path for removal of molecular ions. There is no comparable means for removal of atomic ions. Direct recombination of ionized atomic oxygen (O+) with an electron requires that the excess energy be radiated as light. Radiative recombination is inefficient, however, compared with dissociative recombination and plays only a small role in the removal of ionospheric electrons. The situation becomes more complicated at high altitudes where atomic oxygen (O) is the major constituent of the neutral atmosphere and where electrons are produced primarily by its photoionization. The atomic oxygen ion, O+, may react with N2 and O2 to form NO+ and O2+, but the abundances of N2 and O2 decline relative to O as a function of increasing altitude. In the absence of competing reactions, the concentration of O+ and the density of electrons would increase steadily with altitude, paralleling the rise in the relative abundance of O. This occurs to some extent but is limited eventually by vertical transport.

       
Ionosphere » Mechanisms of ionization » Diffusion
Ions and electrons produced at high altitude are free to diffuse downward, guided by Earth’s magnetic field. The lifetime of O+ is long at high altitudes, where the densities of O2 and N2 are very small. As ions move downward, the densities of O2 and N2 increase. Eventually the time constant for reaction of O+ with O2 and N2 becomes comparable to the time for diffusion, and O+ reacts to produce either O2+ or NO+ before it can move much farther. The O+ density exhibits a maximum in this region. Competition between chemistry and transport is responsible for the formation of an electron-density maximum in the F2 layer. The dominant positive ion is O+.

The density of O+ decreases with decreasing altitude below the peak, reflecting a balance between production of O by photoionization and its removal by reactions (1) and (2). The density of O+ also decreases above the peak. In this case, removal of photo-ions is regulated by downward diffusion rather than by chemistry. The distribution of O+ with altitude above the peak reflects a balance of forces—a pressure-gradient force that acts to support O+ in opposition to gravitational and electrostatic forces that combine to pull O+ down. The electrostatic force acts to preserve electrical charge neutrality. In its absence, the concentration of ions—which are much more massive than electrons—would tend to fall off more rapidly with altitude than electrons. The abundance of electrons would quickly exceed that of ions, and the upper atmosphere would accumulate negative charge. The electric field redresses the imbalance by drawing electrons down and providing additional upward support for positively charged ions. Though O+ has a mass of 16 atomic units, its abundance decreases with altitude as if it had a mass of only 8 atomic units. (One atomic unit corresponds to the mass of a hydrogen atom, 1.66 10-24 gram.) This discrepancy occurs because the electric field exerts a force that is equivalent to that exerted by the gravitational force on a body with a mass of eight atomic units. This electrostatic force is directed upward for ions and downward for electrons, in effect buoying the ions while encouraging the electrons to sink. The concentration of electrons therefore falls off with altitude at precisely the same rate as that of O+, preserving the balance of positive and negative charge.
发表于 2009-2-7 19:11 | 显示全部楼层
Ionosphere » Mechanisms of ionization » Photon absorption
Ionization at any given level depends on three factors—the availability of photons of a wavelength capable of effecting ionization, a supply of atoms and molecules necessary to intercept this radiation, and the efficiency with which the atoms and molecules are able to do so. The efficiency is relatively large for O, O2, and N2 from about 10 to 80 nm. This is the portion of the spectrum responsible for production of electrons and ions in the F1 region. Photons with wavelengths between 90 and 100 nm are absorbed only by O2. They therefore penetrate deeper and are responsible for producing about half the ionization in the E layer. The balance is derived from so-called “soft” X-rays (those of longer wavelengths), which are absorbed with relatively low efficiency in the F region and so are able to penetrate to altitudes of about 120 km (75 miles) when the Sun is high over the region. “Hard” X-rays (those of shorter wavelengths—that is, below about 5 nm) reach even deeper. This portion of the spectrum accounts for the bulk of the ionization in the D region, with an additional contribution from wavelengths longer than 102.6 nm—mainly from photons in the strong solar emission line at Lyman α at a wavelength of 121.7 nm. (The Lyman series is a related sequence of wavelengths that describe electromagnetic energy given off by energized atoms in the ultraviolet region.) Lyman α emissions are weakly absorbed by the major components of the atmosphere—O, O2, and N2—but they are absorbed readily by NO and have sufficient energy to ionize this relatively unstable compound. Despite the low abundance of NO, the high flux of solar radiation at Lyman α is able to provide a significant source of ionization for the D region near 90 km (55 miles).

       
Ionosphere » Ionospheric variations
The ionosphere is variable in space and time. Some of the changes are chemical in origin and can be readily understood on the basis of the general considerations outlined above. There is a systematic variation, for example, according to the time of day. In early morning the Sun is relatively low in the sky, so that radiation must penetrate a large column of air before reaching a given level of the atmosphere. As a result, ionization rates are lower, and the location of ionized layers shifts to higher altitudes. As the Sun rises, the D, E, and F1 layers shift in altitude. The layers are lowest and densities of electrons are highest at noon. At night, on the other hand, ionization in the D, E, and F1 regions tends to disappear as electrons and ions recombine to form neutral gases.

The diurnal, or daily, variation of the F2 layer is less dramatic. Ions produced at high altitudes during the day maintain a sizable density of electrons at the F2 peak throughout the day and then diffuse downward at night. This accounts for the fact that radio reception (both in the broadcast and shortwave bands) is generally best at night. Ionization at lower altitudes—primarily those corresponding to the D region—tends to interfere with radio transmissions during the day. Interference is minimal at night because ionization in the D layer effectively disappears with the setting of the Sun.

The density of ionization varies in response to changes in the intensity and properties of radiation from the Sun. The output of solar energy is relatively constant in the visible and near-ultraviolet portions of the spectrum. It varies appreciably, however, at shorter wavelengths, reflecting changes in the temperature of the outermost regions of the solar atmosphere. The changes are particularly large, in excess of a factor of 10, at X-ray wavelengths. Variations in the D region are correspondingly large, with smaller though still significant changes in the E and F layers.

Solar activity varies on a characteristic timescale of about 11 years. It is not entirely periodic, however; successive cycles can differ significantly, and there are indications that activity can be low for centuries. The Sun was quiet for more than 200 years from about 1600 to about 1850. Solar activity was particularly intense in 1958.

As noted in the section on Mechanisms of ionization, ionization above the F2 peak is removed mainly by downward diffusion of ions and electrons. Ions are constrained, however, to move along the magnetic field. The field is oriented horizontally at the magnetic equator, which is equidistant between the magnetic North Pole and the magnetic South Pole, so vertical diffusion is inhibited at low latitudes. The density of ionized atomic oxygen (O+) and electrons at low latitudes is therefore controlled by chemistry to a larger extent than at high latitudes. The F2 peak is correspondingly higher in altitude, and the density of electrons is elevated accordingly.

Ions and electrons formed at high altitudes and low latitudes are transported to higher latitudes by thermospheric winds. As a result, the highest density of electrons at the F2 peak is observed at intermediate latitudes, offset from the magnetic equator by about 10 degrees.

Transport can also affect the distribution of ionization at lower altitudes. The diurnal pattern of heating in the troposphere and stratosphere excites a spectrum of waves, some of which are free to propagate vertically. The amplitude of the waves grows significantly as the disturbance enters regions of lower density. Passage of the waves is associated with strong alternating horizontal winds. Ionization can be driven up inclined magnetic field lines at one altitude, while winds blowing in an opposite direction at higher altitudes can induce simultaneous downward motion. This can lead to a bunching of ionization—a local enhancement of the electron density. The mechanism is particularly important in the E region and is responsible for the phenomenon known as sporadic E.

The buildup of ionization is normally limited by dissociative recombination of molecular ions. At D and E region altitudes, however, the ionosphere contains a small but variable concentration of atomic ions, derived from ionization of metals ablated from meteorites. The density of metallic ions—notably those of sodium (Na+), magnesium (Mg++), and potassium (K+)—is sometimes high enough to supply a layer of ionization with a density comparable to that of the F layer. This can result in a major temporary disruption of radio communications.

Winds generated in the lower ionosphere by thermal forcing from below have characteristic periods expressed as submultiples of a day. Waves with a period of 24 hours dominate at low latitudes, whereas those with a characteristic period of 12 hours are more important at high latitudes. The origin of the waves is basically similar to that of oceanic tides caused by the pull of lunar gravity. The vertical motion that generates ionospheric waves, however, is the result of the diurnal pattern of heating and cooling rather than gravity. Additional waves can arise owing to irregular forcing, associated, for example, with thunderstorms, motion over mountain ranges, and other small-scale meteorological disturbances. These small-scale disturbances are referred to as gravity waves to distinguish them from the more regular planetary-scale motions excited by the diurnal cycle of heating and cooling. The regular response to thermal forcing is known as the atmospheric tide.

Tides and gravity waves have similar effects on ionization in the E region. They both are responsible for concentrating ionization in layers. In combination with the large-scale system of winds in the lower thermosphere, they are also effective in driving an irregular current that flows in the E and lower F regions of the ionosphere. The current owes its origin to differences in the facility with which motions of ions and electrons are constrained by the magnetic field. It is associated with an electric field and results in a modulation of the magnetic field that can be readily detected at the surface. The current is particularly intense in the equatorial region, where it is known as the electrojet. The region of strong current flow is known as the dynamo region.

Protons (H+) and helium ions (He+) are important components of the ionosphere above the F2 peak. They increase in abundance relative to ionized atomic oxygen (O+) with increasing altitude. Protons are produced by photoionization of atomic hydrogen (H),

hv + H ⟶ H+ + e (9)
and by charge transfer from O+ to H,

O+ + H ⟶ O + H+. (10)
Helium ions are formed by photoionization of helium. The distribution of H+ and He+ with altitude reflects the influence of the polarization electric field set up to preserve charge neutrality. When O+ is the dominant ion, the polarization field acts to lift H+ and He+ with a force equivalent, but in opposite direction, to that exerted by the gravitational field on a particle with a mass of eight atomic units, as described in the section on Diffusion. Protons behave as though they have an effective gravitational mass of −7 atomic units (−7 = 1 − 8). The effective mass of He+ is −4 atomic units (−4 = 4 − 8).

The abundance of H+ and He+ increases with altitude. Eventually H+ becomes the dominant component of the outermost ionosphere, which is sometimes referred to as the protonosphere. The more uniform composition of the atmosphere at this level causes a reduction in the polarization field to one equivalent to the gravitational force acting on a body with a mass of 0.5 atomic unit, directed upward for ions and downward for electrons. This field is sufficient to maintain equal densities of H+ and electrons. The effective masses of O+ and He+ shift to 15.5 atomic units (15.5 = 16 − 0.5) and 3.5 atomic units (3.5 = 4 − 0.5), respectively, and the abundance of O+, He+, and H+ declines with further increases in altitude.

Citations
MLA Style:

"ionosphere and magnetosphere." Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica. 2009. Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica Online. 07 Feb. 2009 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchec ... e-and-magnetosphere>.

APA Style:

ionosphere and magnetosphere. (2009). In Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica. Retrieved February 07, 2009, from Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchec ... e-and-magnetosphere

For a definition of "ionosphere and magnetosphere", visit   Merriam-Webster. TABLE OF CONTENTS
Main
Ionosphere
Discovery of the ionosphere
Layers of the ionosphere
D region
E region
F region
Mechanisms of ionization
Photoionization
Recombination
Diffusion
Photon absorption
Ionospheric variations
Magnetosphere
Auroras
Auroral zones
Causes of auroral displays
Van Allen radiation belts
Additional Reading
Ionosphere
Magnetosphere and aurora
Citations
IMAGES The-Van-Allen-radiation-belts-contained-within-Earths-magnetosphereThe Van Allen radiation belts contained within Earth’s magnetosphere. Pressure from the solar wind …[Credits : Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, Inc.] A-display-of-aurora-australis-or-southern-lights-manifesting-itselfA display of aurora australis, or southern lights, manifesting itself as a glowing loop, in an …[Credits : NASA/Johnson Space Center/Earth Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory] Earths-full-north-polar-auroral-oval-in-an-image-takenEarth’s full north polar auroral oval, in an image taken in ultraviolet light by the U.S. Polar …[Credits : NASA] PREVNEXT About Us Privacy Policy Terms of Use RSS Fee

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[ 本帖最后由 VOG 于 2009-2-7 19:12 编辑 ]
发表于 2009-2-7 22:53 | 显示全部楼层
应该不会有人连标题都看不懂吧?一个可能是生词的“电离层”。

楼主很喜欢英语。我想合适的时候,论坛不妨如同TYF一样设置一个外文版块,聘请楼主当版主。:y28
发表于 2009-2-11 00:47 | 显示全部楼层
VOG,我是E盲:lol
 楼主| 发表于 2009-2-11 10:43 | 显示全部楼层
LZ英语水平这边先赞一个h:19

虽然该贴是英文,鉴于内容也是对于电离层的有关介绍,而且大致内容相似,方便中英文对照查询,故合并到我开的“电离层”主题内h:20
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